Egemen feodal soylulu\u011fun yaban\u0131l sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131, orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131, g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcleri ile doldururken, t\u00fcm Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da ezilen s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n sessiz sedas\u0131z \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 feodal sistemi kemirmi\u015fti; bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, i\u00e7inde feodal beylere gitgide daha az yer kalan ko\u015fullar\u0131 yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ger\u00e7i, k\u0131rda, soylu beyler, h\u00e2l\u00e2 ortal\u0131\u011f\u0131 kas\u0131p kavuruyorlard\u0131; toprak k\u00f6lelerinin iflah\u0131n\u0131 kesiyor, \u00e7ektikleri g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc\u011fe g\u00f6zlerini kap\u0131yor, \u00fcr\u00fcnlerini ayaklar\u0131yla \u00e7i\u011fniyor, kar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ve k\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n \u0131rzlar\u0131na ge\u00e7iyorlard\u0131. Ama dolaylarda kentler y\u00fckselmi\u015fti: \u0130talya\u2019da, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde, Ren k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131nda, k\u00fclleri i\u00e7inden yeni ba\u015ftan do\u011fmu\u015f Roma ilk\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zg\u00fcr kentleri; \u00f6te yandan, \u00f6zellikle Almanya\u2019da, yeni yap\u0131tlar; her zaman surlar ve hendeklerle \u00e7evrilmi\u015f bulunan bu yap\u0131tlar, soyluluk \u015fatolar\u0131ndan \u00e7ok daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc kalelerdi, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc onlar\u0131 ancak b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ordu y\u0131kabilirdi. Bu surlar ve bu hendekler arkas\u0131nda, orta\u00e7a\u011f: zanaat\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 -olduk\u00e7a yava\u015f bir bi\u00e7imde ve loncalar i\u00e7inde- geli\u015fiyor, ilk sermayeler, toplan\u0131yor, hem kentlerin kendi aralar\u0131nda ve d\u00fcnyan\u0131n geri kalan b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc ile ticaret yapma gereksinmesi ve hem de gene yava\u015f yava\u015f, gereksinme ile birlikte, bu ticareti koruma ara\u00e7lar\u0131 do\u011fuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Daha 15. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan ba\u015flayarak, kent burjuvalar\u0131, toplum i\u00e7in, feodal soyluluktan daha vazge\u00e7ilmez bir duruma gelmi\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131. Ger\u00e7i tar\u0131m, n\u00fcfusun b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn u\u011fra\u015f\u0131 ve sonu\u00e7 olarak, en \u00f6nemli \u00fcretim kolu idi. Ama soylulu\u011fun zorbal\u0131klar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, \u015furada burada varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcren birka\u00e7 yal\u0131t\u0131k \u00f6zg\u00fcr k\u00f6yl\u00fc, tar\u0131mda \u00f6nemli olan \u015feyin, soylunun avarelik ve haks\u0131z vergi \u00f6detmeleri de\u011fil, ama k\u00f6yl\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 oldu\u011funu yeterince tan\u0131tl\u0131yordu. \u00d6te yandan, soylulu\u011fun gereksinmeleri de \u00f6ylesine b\u00fcy\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f ve \u00f6ylesine bi\u00e7im de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015fti ki, soyluluk i\u00e7in bile, kent, vazge\u00e7ilmez bir duruma gelmi\u015fti; soyluluk, kendi \u00fcretiminin tek aletini, z\u0131rh\u0131n\u0131 ve silahlar\u0131n\u0131 kentlerden sa\u011flam\u0131yor muydu? Kuma\u015flar\u0131, yerli ev e\u015fyas\u0131 ve m\u00fccevherleri, \u0130talya ipeklilerini, Brabant dantel\u00e2lar\u0131n\u0131, Kuzey k\u00fcrklerini, Arabistan kokular\u0131n\u0131, Do\u011fu yemi\u015flerini, Hint baharatlar\u0131n\u0131, her \u015feyi, \u2013 sabun hari\u00e7 her \u015feyi, soyluluk, kentlilerinden sat\u0131n al\u0131yordu. Belirli bir d\u00fcnya ticareti vard\u0131; \u0130talyanlar, Akdeniz \u00fczerinde ve onun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, Flandre\u2019a kadar Atlantik k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131nda dola\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131; \u0130ngiliz ve Hollanda rekabetinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, Hanse [1] t\u00fcccarlar\u0131 Kuzey denizi ve Balt\u0131k denizini h\u00e2l\u00e2 egemenlikleri alt\u0131nda tutuyorlard\u0131. Kuzey ve G\u00fcneydeki deniz yolculu\u011fu merkezleri aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011f, karadan kurulmu\u015ftu; bu ba\u011f\u0131 kuran yollar, Almanya\u2019dan ge\u00e7iyordu. Soyluluk, gitgide daha gereksiz bir duruma gelir ve geli\u015fmeyi gitgide daha \u00e7ok engellerken, kentler burjuvalar\u0131, \u00fcretim ve ticaretin, k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve siyasal ve toplumsal kurumlar\u0131n ilerleyi\u015fini ki\u015file\u015ftiren, s\u0131n\u0131f durumuna geliyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u00dcretim ve de\u011fi\u015fimdeki b\u00fct\u00fcn bu geli\u015fmeler, asl\u0131nda, bizim bug\u00fcnk\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerimize g\u00f6re, \u00e7ok s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 nitelikte \u015feylerdi. \u00dcretim, salt lonca zanaat\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 bi\u00e7imine ba\u011fl\u0131 kal\u0131yor, yani h\u00e2l\u00e2 feodal bir nitelik ta\u015f\u0131yordu; ticaret, Avrupa sular\u0131n\u0131 a\u015fm\u0131yor ve de\u011fi\u015fim arac\u0131yla Uzak-Do\u011fu \u00fcr\u00fcnlerini sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Do\u011fu k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 kentlerinden daha uza\u011fa gitmiyordu. Ama meslekler ve onlarla birlikte bu i\u015fleri yapan burjuvalar, ne kadar baya\u011f\u0131 ve s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kal\u0131rlarsa kals\u0131nlar, feodal toplumu alt\u00fcst etmeye yettiler ve soyluluk oldu\u011fu yerde sayarken, onlar hi\u00e7 olmazsa hareket i\u00e7inde kald\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Kentler burjuvas\u0131, ayr\u0131ca, feodaliteye kar\u015f\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir silaha da sahipti: para. Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndaki feodal ekonomide, para i\u00e7in pek yer yoktu. Feodal bey, gereksinmesi olan her \u015feyi, ya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bi\u00e7imi, ya da \u00fcr\u00fcn bi\u00e7imi alt\u0131nda, kendi toprak k\u00f6lelerinden sa\u011fl\u0131yordu; kad\u0131nlar, keten ve y\u00fcn e\u011firiyor ve dokuyorlar ve giysiler dikiyorlard\u0131; erkekler tarlalar\u0131 ekiyorlard\u0131; \u00e7ocuklar beyin s\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fcne bak\u0131yor, onun i\u00e7in orman yemi\u015fleri, ku\u015f yuvalar\u0131, hayvan yatakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 (hayvanlar\u0131n ah\u0131rda \u00fcst\u00fcnde yatmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in ot) topluyorlard\u0131; ayr\u0131ca, b\u00fct\u00fcn aile, bundan ba\u015fka bu\u011fday, meyve, yumurta, tereya\u011f\u0131, peynir, k\u00fcmes ku\u015flar\u0131, gen\u00e7 s\u00fcr\u00fc hayvanlar\u0131, daha bilmem ne teslim etme zorundayd\u0131. T\u00fcm feodal egemenlik, kendi kendine yetiyordu; sava\u015f y\u00fck\u00fcmleri bile, \u00fcr\u00fcn olarak isteniyordu; ticaret, de\u011fi\u015fim yoktu, para gereksizdi. Avrupa \u00f6ylesine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck bir d\u00fczeye d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, \u00f6ylesine ba\u015ftan ba\u015flama zorunda kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ki, para, o zaman toplumsal bir i\u015flevden \u00e7ok, salt siyasal bir i\u015flev g\u00f6rebilirdi: Vergilerin \u00f6denmesine yar\u0131yor ve esas olarak ya\u011fma ile kazan\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u015eimdi her \u015fey de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015fti. Para, yeni ba\u015ftan, evrensel de\u011fi\u015fim arac\u0131 durumuna gelmi\u015f ve bunun sonucu, niceli\u011fi olduk\u00e7a artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131; art\u0131k soyluluk bile ondan vazge\u00e7emiyordu ve satacak \u00e7ok az \u015feyi oldu\u011fu ya da hatta hi\u00e7 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, ya\u011fma da art\u0131k o kadar kolay olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, burjuva-tefeciden \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 alma yolunu tutma zorunda kald\u0131. Yeni toplar taraf\u0131ndan topa tutulmas\u0131ndan \u00e7ok \u00f6nce, feodal \u015fatolar, para taraf\u0131ndan \u00e7oktan kemirilmi\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131; top barutu, para hizmetinde bir oda \u00e7avu\u015fundan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmad\u0131. Para, burjuvazinin, b\u00fcy\u00fck siyasal e\u015fitlik rendesi idi. Ki\u015fisel bir ili\u015fkinin bir para ili\u015fkisi taraf\u0131ndan, ayr\u0131l bir y\u00fck\u00fcm\u00fcn (prestation) para bi\u00e7iminde bir y\u00fck\u00fcm taraf\u0131ndan ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 her yerde, bir burjuva ili\u015fkisi, feodal bir ili\u015fki yerine ge\u00e7iyordu. Ger\u00e7i eski kaba do\u011fal ekonomi bi\u00e7imi, ezici bir \u00e7o\u011funlukla varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyordu; ama daha \u015fimdiden, Hollanda\u2019da, Bel\u00e7ika\u2019da, A\u015fa\u011f\u0131-Ren\u2019de oldu\u011fu gibi, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin feodal beye angarya ve ayni y\u00fck\u00fcm yerine para verdikleri, beyler ile uyruklar\u0131n, toprak sahipleri ve \u00e7iftlik kirac\u0131lar\u0131 durumuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmleri yolu \u00fczerinde ilk kesin ad\u0131m\u0131 atm\u0131\u015f bulunduklar\u0131, yani, k\u0131rda bile, feodal kurumlar\u0131n toplumsal tabanlar\u0131n\u0131 yitirdikleri bir\u00e7ok b\u00f6lge vard\u0131. Bu \u00e7a\u011fda, Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 saran para h\u0131rs\u0131, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda feodalitenin para taraf\u0131ndan i\u00e7ten ne derecede a\u015f\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve kemirilmi\u015f oldu\u011funun parlak bir \u00f6rne\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Portekizlilerin, Mrika k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131nda, Hindistan\u2019da, t\u00fcm Uzak-Do\u011fuda arad\u0131klar\u0131 \u015fey, alt\u0131n\u2019d\u0131r; \u0130spanyollar\u0131, Amerika\u2019ya gitmek \u00fczere, Atlantik Okyanusunu a\u015fmaya g\u00f6t\u00fcren \u015fey, b\u00fcy\u00fcl\u00fc alt\u0131n s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcd\u00fcr; yeni bulunan bir k\u0131y\u0131ya ayak basar basmaz, Beyaz adam\u0131n ilk istedi\u011fi \u015fey, alt\u0131n idi. Ama bu uzakta maceraya gitme gereksinmesi, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta i\u00e7inde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi feodal ya da yar\u0131-feodal bi\u00e7imlere kar\u015f\u0131n, temeli tar\u0131m olan ve fetih sava\u015flar\u0131 esas olarak toprak kazanma ere\u011fini g\u00f6zeten feodalite ile daha temelinde, ba\u011fda\u015fmaz bir \u015feydi. \u00dcstelik denizcilik, anti-feodal niteli\u011finin damgas\u0131n\u0131, b\u00fct\u00fcn modern sava\u015f filolar\u0131na bile basm\u0131\u015f bulunan a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a burjuva bir sanayi idi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Buna g\u00f6re, 15 y\u00fczy\u0131lda, feodalite, t\u00fcm Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da tam bir \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f durumundayd\u0131; anti-feodal \u00e7\u0131karlara sahip kentler, kendi \u00f6z hukuklar\u0131 ve silahl\u0131 burjuvalar\u0131 ile birlikte, her yerde feodal topraklar i\u00e7ine sokulmu\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131; bu kentler, feodal beyleri, para arac\u0131yla daha \u015fimdiden toplumsal bak\u0131mdan ve hatta \u015furada burada siyasal bak\u0131mdan da, k\u0131smen kendilerine ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 k\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131; son derece uygun ko\u015fullar\u0131n tar\u0131msal geli\u015fmeyi sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u0131rda bile, eski feodal ba\u011flar, paran\u0131n etkisi alt\u0131nda, kopmaya ba\u015fl\u0131yorlard\u0131; soylulu\u011fun eski egemenli\u011fi, ancak Almanya\u2019da Elbe\u2019nin do\u011fusu gibi yeni fethedilen \u00fclkelerde, ya da zaten geri kalm\u0131\u015f, tecimsel yollar\u0131n uza\u011f\u0131nda bulunan b\u00f6lgelerde geli\u015fmeye devam ediyordu Ama her yerde, -k\u0131rda oldu\u011fu gibi kentlerde de- ezeli ve sa\u00e7ma sava\u015fman\u0131n, feodal beyler aras\u0131ndaki i\u00e7 sava\u015f\u0131, hatta d\u0131\u015f d\u00fc\u015fman \u00fclkenin i\u00e7inde oldu\u011fu zaman bile, s\u00fcrekli k\u0131lan o \u00e7eki\u015fmelerin, t\u00fcm orta\u00e7a\u011f boyunca s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f bulunan, o nedensiz, o kesintisiz yak\u0131p y\u0131kma durumunun son bulmas\u0131n\u0131 isteyen halk \u00f6\u011feleri \u00e7o\u011falm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130steklerini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz olan bu \u00f6\u011feler, t\u00fcm feodal d\u00fczenin ba\u015f\u0131 olan krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n ta kendisinde, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir dayanak buldular. Ve toplumsal ili\u015fkiler d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin devlet ili\u015fkileri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine g\u00f6t\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, iktisattan siyasete ge\u00e7ti\u011fimiz nokta, i\u015fte buradad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Halklar\u0131n, orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131ndaki karma\u015fas\u0131ndan, yava\u015f yava\u015f yeni milliyetler \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131, \u2013 bilindi\u011fi gibi, eski Roma eyaletlerinin \u00e7o\u011funda, yenilenlerin yenenleri, k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve kentlinin Cermanik beyi \u00f6z\u00fcmledikleri s\u00fcre\u00e7. Demek ki, modern milliyetler de, ezilen s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcnleridirler. Menke\u2019nin orta Lorraine b\u00f6lgeleri haritas\u0131, [2] \u015furada kayna\u015fman\u0131n, burada ayr\u0131lman\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015fme bi\u00e7imi \u00fczerine anlaml\u0131 bir fikir verir. Bel\u00e7ika ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131-Loren bak\u0131m\u0131ndan, bu s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n esas olarak, daha bundan y\u00fcz y\u0131l \u00f6nce Frans\u0131zca ve Almanca aras\u0131nda var olan dil s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 ile d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmde\u015f oldu\u011funu g\u00f6rmek i\u00e7in, bu harita \u00fczerinde Latin ve Cermen yer adlar\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131 izlemek yeter. H\u00e2l\u00e2, \u015furada burada, iki dilin \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u00e7in sava\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 dar bir b\u00f6lge g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir; ama genel olarak, neyin Alman ve neyin Latin kalaca\u011f\u0131 sa\u011flamca saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ama haritadaki yer adlar\u0131ndan \u00e7o\u011funun, A\u015fa\u011f\u0131-Frankonca ya da eski Almancadan t\u00fcretilmi\u015f bi\u00e7imi, bu adlar\u0131n, 9. en ge\u00e7 10. y\u00fczy\u0131la \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, buna g\u00f6re, Karolenjiyenler \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru, s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n esas olarak \u00e7izilmi\u015f bulundu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir. Nedir ki, Latin taraf\u0131nda, \u00f6zellikle dilsel s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda, Cermanik bir ki\u015fi ad\u0131 ile Latin bir topografik adland\u0131rmadan bile\u015fmi\u015f karma adlar g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr: \u00d6rne\u011fin, Meuse\u2019\u00fcn bat\u0131s\u0131nda, Verdun yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda, bug\u00fcn Ippecourt, R\u00e9court-la-Creux, Amblaincourt-sur-Aire, Thier-ville haline gelmi\u015f bulunan Eppone curtis, Rotfridi curtis, Inqolini curtis, Treudegisilio villa gibi. Bunlar, Frank feodallerine ait alanlar, Latin topraklar\u0131nda, er ge\u00e7 Latinle\u015fmekten kurtulamayan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Alman kolonileridir. Kentlerde ve yal\u0131t\u0131k k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde, dillerini
daha olduk\u00e7a uzun s\u00fcre koruyan daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc Alman kolonileri yerle\u015fmi\u015flerdi; \u00f6rne\u011fin, daha 9. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda, Ludwigslied, [3] i\u015fte bu kolonilerin birinden f\u0131\u015fk\u0131rd\u0131; ama Frank beylerinden b\u00fcy\u00fck bir bol\u00fcm\u00fc, daha \u00f6nce Latinle\u015fmi\u015f bulunuyordu ve Latincenin (Roman) daha o zamandan Fransa\u2019n\u0131n resmi dili olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 842 krallar ve ulular yemin form\u00fclleri, bunun b\u00f6yle oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Dil gruplar\u0131 bir kez s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131ktan sonra (\u00f6rne\u011fin, Elbe Slavlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen sava\u015flar gibi, daha sonraki fetih ya da yok etme sava\u015flar\u0131 bir yana), bu gruplar\u0131n, devletlerin kurulu\u015fu i\u00e7in temel veriler hizmeti g\u00f6rmeleri, milliyetlerin uluslar haline gelmek \u00fczere geli\u015fmeye ba\u015flamalar\u0131 do\u011fald\u0131. Bu \u00f6\u011fenin daha 9. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan ba\u015flayarak sahip bulundu\u011fu g\u00fc\u00e7, Lotharingie karma devletinin h\u0131zl\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fc taraf\u0131ndan tan\u0131tlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ger\u00e7i t\u00fcm orta\u00e7a\u011f boyunca, dilsel ve ulusal s\u0131n\u0131rlar birbirleriyle d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmde\u015f olmaktan uzak kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r; ama belki \u0130talya d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, her milliyet gene de Avrupa\u2019da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6zel devlet taraf\u0131ndan temsil edilmi\u015ftir ve ulusal devletler kurma yolunda kendini durmadan daha a\u00e7\u0131k ve daha bilin\u00e7li bir bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6steren e\u011filim, orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n belli ba\u015fl\u0131 ilerleme kald\u0131ra\u00e7lar\u0131ndan birini olu\u015fturur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ne var ki, bu orta\u00e7a\u011f devletlerinin her birinde, kral, t\u00fcm feodal a\u015fama-s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131n doru\u011funu, ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131lar\u0131n (vassallerin) kendisinden ka\u00e7amad\u0131klar\u0131 ve ayn\u0131 zamanda kendisine kar\u015f\u0131 s\u00fcrekli bir ba\u015fkald\u0131rma durumunda bulunduklar\u0131 doru\u011fu olu\u015fturuyordu. T\u00fcm feodal ekonominin temel ili\u015fkisi, yani baz\u0131 hizmetler ve ki\u015fisel bor\u00e7lar kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 toprak verilmesi, en yal\u0131n k\u00f6kensel bi\u00e7imi alt\u0131nda, \u00f6zellikle kavga aramakta bir\u00e7oklar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131 oldu\u011fu yerlerde, daha o zamandan yeterince anla\u015fmazl\u0131k konusu \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131yordu. Bundan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc, ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131k (vasselage) ili\u015fkilerinin, b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkelerde, verilmi\u015f, geri al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f, yenilenmi\u015f, de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f ya da farkl\u0131 ko\u015fullara ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f haklar ve y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerinin i\u00e7inden \u00e7\u0131k\u0131lmaz bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k meydana getirdikleri orta\u00e7a\u011f sonunda durum nas\u0131l olmal\u0131yd\u0131? \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u201cG\u00f6z\u00fc pek\u201d Charles, topraklar\u0131n\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131 i\u00e7in imparatorun, \u00f6b\u00fcr par\u00e7as\u0131 i\u00e7in de Fransa kral\u0131n\u0131n ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131s\u0131 (vassal) idi; \u00f6te yandan, onun metbunu (suzerain) olan Fransa kral\u0131, ayn\u0131 zamanda baz\u0131 topraklar i\u00e7in kendi ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131s\u0131 olan \u201cG\u00f6z\u00fc pek\u201d Charles\u2019\u0131n ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131s\u0131 idi; bu durumda \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalardan nas\u0131l ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131labilirdi? Ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131lar\u0131n, onlar\u0131 d\u0131\u015fa kar\u015f\u0131 ve kendi aralar\u0131nda koruyabilecek tek \u015fey olan krall\u0131k merkezine do\u011fru o \u00e7ekim ve bu \u00e7ekimin \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7ilmez ve s\u00fcrekli bir bi\u00e7imde kendisine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc o bu merkezden iteleme y\u00fcz y\u0131ll\u0131k ve alma\u015f\u0131k oyununun nedeni budur; \u00f6zg\u00fcr insana yara\u015f\u0131r tek gelir kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ya\u011fma oldu\u011fu bu uzun d\u00f6nem boyunca, krall\u0131k ve ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131lar aras\u0131ndaki, u\u011fursuz \u015famatas\u0131 geri kalan her \u015feyi kapsayan o kesintisiz sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n nedeni budur; ozans\u0131 \u015f\u00f6valyelik ad\u0131 arkas\u0131nda saklanan ve durmadan onur ve ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131ktan s\u00f6z eden o sonsuz ve her zaman yenilenen ihanetler, cinayetler, zehirlemeler, kalle\u015flikler ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilecek her t\u00fcrl\u00fc al\u00e7akl\u0131klar dizisinin nedeni budur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bu genel kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k i\u00e7inde, krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n, ilerleme \u00f6\u011fesi oldu\u011fu a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. Krall\u0131k, d\u00fczensizlik i\u00e7inde d\u00fczeni, d\u00fc\u015fman devletler bi\u00e7imindeki ufalanma kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda olu\u015fma durumundaki ulusu temsil ediyordu. Feodalitenin y\u00fczeyinde olu\u015fan t\u00fcm devrimci \u00f6\u011feler, bundan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc, krall\u0131k ne kadar onlara dayanmak zorunda idiyse, o kadar krall\u0131\u011fa dayanmak zorunda idiler. Krall\u0131k ile burjuvazi aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011fla\u015fma (ittifak), 10. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar gider; \u00e7o\u011fu kez \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalarla kesilen bu ba\u011fla\u015fma -\u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc orta\u00e7a\u011fda hi\u00e7 bir \u015fey yolunu kararl\u0131l\u0131kla izlemez-, krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n kesin utkuyu kazanmas\u0131na yard\u0131m edene ve krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n da, g\u00f6n\u00fcl borcu belirtisi olarak, ba\u011fla\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 boyunduruk alt\u0131na almas\u0131na ve soymas\u0131na de\u011fin, her zaman daha sa\u011flam ve daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir bi\u00e7imde yenilenecektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Burjuvalar gibi, krallar da, do\u011fmakta olan hukuk\u00e7ular loncas\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir destek buluyorlard\u0131. Roma hukukunun yeniden bulunmas\u0131 ile feodal \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n dan\u0131\u015fmanlar\u0131 olan rahipler ve kiliseye ba\u011fl\u0131 olmayan hukuk\u00e7ular aras\u0131nda, i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc yap\u0131ld\u0131. Bu yeni hukuk\u00e7ular, daha ba\u015ftan ba\u015flayarak, esas olarak, burjuva s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n i\u00e7inde bulunuyorlard\u0131, ama \u00f6te yandan, irdeledikleri, \u00f6\u011frettikleri, uygulad\u0131klar\u0131 hukuk da, niteli\u011fi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan, esas olarak anti-feodal ve belirli bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan, burjuva idi. Roma hukuku, salt \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyetin egemen oldu\u011fu bir toplumdaki ya\u015fama ko\u015fullar\u0131 ve \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6ylesine klasik hukuksal ifadesidir ki, daha sonraki t\u00fcm yasamalar ona hi\u00e7 bir esas olarak iyile\u015fme getirememi\u015flerdir. Oysa, orta\u00e7a\u011f burjuva m\u00fclkiyeti, hen\u00fcz g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir feodal s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131rmalar karmas\u0131 g\u00f6steriyor, \u00f6rne\u011fin b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc bak\u0131m\u0131ndan ayr\u0131cal\u0131klardan olu\u015fuyordu; buna g\u00f6re Roma hukuku, \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n burjuva ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok ilerisinde bulunuyordu. Ama burjuva m\u00fclkiyetin tarihsel geli\u015fmesinin devam\u0131, ger\u00e7ekten de oldu\u011fu gibi, ancak ar\u0131 \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyete do\u011fru evrimine dayanabilirdi. Nedir ki, bu geli\u015fme, orta\u00e7a\u011f sonu burjuvazisinin hen\u00fcz ancak bilin\u00e7siz olarak kendisine do\u011fru y\u00f6neldi\u011fi \u015feyi d\u00f6rt ba\u015f\u0131 bay\u0131nd\u0131r bir bi\u00e7imde i\u00e7eren Roma hukukunda g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir kald\u0131ra\u00e7 bulacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Hatta e\u011fer Roma hukuku, bir\u00e7ok bireysel durumda, \u00f6rne\u011fin, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin, y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerinden zaten kullan\u0131la-gelen kurtulu\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n yaz\u0131l\u0131 kan\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steremedikleri durumlarda, onlar\u0131n soyluluk taraf\u0131ndan peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ezgisine bahane hizmeti g\u00f6rse bile, bu, hi\u00e7 bir \u015feyi de\u011fi\u015ftirmez. Roma hukuku olmasayd\u0131 da, soyluluk benzer bahaneler bulurdu ve her g\u00fcn b\u00f6yle bahaneler buluyordu. Feodal ko\u015fullar\u0131 kesinlikle tan\u0131mayan ve modern \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyeti tamamen \u00f6nceleyen bir hukukun y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011fe girmesi, her durumda \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ilerleme idi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Feodal soylulu\u011fun, iktisadi planda, orta\u00e7a\u011f sonu toplumunda nas\u0131l gereksiz, hatta s\u0131k\u0131c\u0131 bir duruma gelmeye ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, siyasal planda da, kentlerin ve o \u00e7a\u011fda sadece krall\u0131k bi\u00e7imi alt\u0131nda olanakl\u0131 olan ulusal devletin geli\u015fmesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan nas\u0131l bir engel durumuna gelmi\u015f oldu\u011funu g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f bulunuyoruz. Ama feodal soyluluk, o zamana kadar silahlar\u0131 kullanma tekelini elinde tuttu\u011fu, o olmaks\u0131z\u0131n ne sava\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi, ne de sava\u015fa giri\u015filebilece\u011fi i\u00e7in, her \u015feye kar\u015f\u0131n ayakta tutulmu\u015ftu. Bu durum da de\u011fi\u015fecekti; feodal soylulu\u011fa, onun egemen oldu\u011fu toplum ve devlet d\u00f6neminin son buldu\u011funu, \u015f\u00f6valye niteli\u011fi i\u00e7inde, hatta sava\u015f alan\u0131nda bile, art\u0131k kendisinden yararlan\u0131lamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131tlamak i\u00e7in, son ad\u0131m da at\u0131lacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Feodal rejime kar\u015f\u0131, askerlerin en yak\u0131n metbular\u0131na (kendisine t\u00e2bi olanlara), krall\u0131k ordusu komutanl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ba\u011flarla ba\u011fl\u0131 bulunduklar\u0131, kendisi de feodal bir ordu ile sava\u015fmak demek, a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a bir k\u0131s\u0131r d\u00f6ng\u00fc i\u00e7inde d\u00f6nmek ve bir ad\u0131m bile ileri gitmemek demekti. Daha 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131ndan ba\u015flayarak, krallar, bu feodal ordudan kurtulmak ve kendi \u00f6z ordular\u0131n\u0131 kurmak i\u00e7in \u00e7aba g\u00f6sterdiler. Bu \u00e7a\u011fdan sonra, krall\u0131k ordular\u0131 i\u00e7inde, askere al\u0131nm\u0131\u015flar ya da kiralanm\u0131\u015flardan olu\u015fan birlikler oran\u0131n\u0131n durmadan artt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta, \u00f6zellikle, Lombard, Cenoval\u0131, Alman, Bel\u00e7ikal\u0131 vb. kentler d\u00f6k\u00fcnt\u00fcleri ve ka\u00e7ak toprak k\u00f6lelerinden olu\u015fan, ilkin a\u00e7\u0131k k\u0131r sava\u015fmalar\u0131nda pek i\u015fe yaramaz, kentlerin i\u015fgalinde ve ku\u015fatmalarda kullan\u0131lan piyade s\u00f6z konusudur. Ama daha orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru, Tanr\u0131 bilir nereden toplanm\u0131\u015f maiyetleri ile birlikte, kendilerini yabanc\u0131 prenslerin hizmetine kiralayan ve b\u00f6ylece feodal sava\u015f ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7are bulunmaz y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 haber veren \u015f\u00f6valyeleri de g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ayn\u0131 zamanda, kentlerde ve h\u00e2l\u00e2 var olduklar\u0131 ve yeniden olu\u015ftuklar\u0131 yerlerde \u00f6zg\u00fcr k\u00f6yl\u00fcler aras\u0131nda, sava\u015fkan bir piyadenin temel ko\u015fullar\u0131 meydana geliyordu. O zamana kadar, kendisi gibi atl\u0131 maiyeti (\u00fcst g\u00f6revlinin yan\u0131nda bulunan kimse, alt g\u00f6revdekiler) ile birlikte \u015f\u00f6valyelik, ordunun \u00e7ekirde\u011finden \u00e7ok, ordunun ta kendisini olu\u015fturuyordu; \u015f\u00f6valyeli\u011fe, emir eri olarak, yayan e\u015flik eden toprak k\u00f6leleri s\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fc, -a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a k\u0131rda- kendini ancak sava\u015ftan ka\u00e7mak ve ya\u011fma yapmak i\u00e7in g\u00f6steriyordu. Feodalitenin g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc durumu s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc s\u00fcrece, yani 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonuna de\u011fin, \u015f\u00f6valyelik, b\u00fct\u00fcn sava\u015fmalara kat\u0131ld\u0131 ve bunlar\u0131n sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 belirledi. Bu tarihten sonra, durum ve ger\u00e7ekte ayn\u0131 zamanda bir\u00e7ok noktada birden, de\u011fi\u015fti. \u0130ngiltere\u2019de toprak k\u00f6leli\u011finin yava\u015f yava\u015f ortadan kalk\u0131\u015f\u0131, toprak sahipleri (yeomen) ya da \u00e7iftlik kirac\u0131lar\u0131ndan olu\u015fan kalabal\u0131k bir \u00f6zg\u00fcr k\u00f6yl\u00fcler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 yaratt\u0131 ve b\u00f6ylece, o \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ulusal \u0130ngiliz silah\u0131 olan ok ve yay kullanmakta talimli yeni bir piyadenin ilkel maddesini sa\u011flad\u0131. Y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015f s\u0131ras\u0131nda ister atl\u0131 ister ats\u0131z olsunlar, her zaman yaya sava\u015fan bu ok\u00e7ular\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131, \u0130ngiliz ordular\u0131n\u0131n takti\u011finde \u00f6nemli bir de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe neden oldu. 14. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan sonra, \u0130ngiliz \u015f\u00f6valyeli\u011fi, alan ya da \u00f6b\u00fcr ko\u015fullar\u0131n buna uygun oldu\u011fu yerlerde, daha \u00e7ok yaya d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr. D\u00f6v\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ba\u015flatan ve d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 da\u011f\u0131tan ok\u00e7ular\u0131n arkas\u0131nda, \u015f\u00f6valyeli\u011fin kapal\u0131 ordusu, son \u00e7arp\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 yanlardan sald\u0131r\u0131lar ile desteklemek i\u00e7in sadece bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc at \u00fcst\u00fcnde oldu\u011fu halde, d\u00fc\u015fman sald\u0131r\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 ya da uygun ilerleme an\u0131n\u0131 ayakta bekler. \u0130ngiltere\u2019nin bu \u00e7a\u011fda Fransa\u2019daki kesintisiz utkular\u0131, esas olarak orduda savunucu bir \u00f6\u011fenin bu yeniden canland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na dayan\u0131r ve bu sava\u015flar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu, t\u0131pk\u0131 Wellington\u2019un \u0130spanya ve Bel\u00e7ika\u2019da verdi\u011fi sava\u015flar gibi, kar\u015f\u0131-sald\u0131r\u0131 ile sonu\u00e7lanan savunucu sava\u015fmalard\u0131r. Yeni takti\u011fin Frans\u0131zlar taraf\u0131ndan kabul\u00fc, -belki de kiralad\u0131klar\u0131 kundakl\u0131 yayla silahlanm\u0131\u015f \u0130talyan askerlerinin, \u0130ngiliz ok\u00e7ular\u0131n yerini tuttuklar\u0131 andan ba\u015flayarak-, \u0130ngilizlerin utkun y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne son verdi. Ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde, 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda, Flandre kentlerinin piyadesi, Frans\u0131z \u015f\u00f6valyeli\u011fine a\u00e7\u0131k k\u0131rda -ve \u00e7o\u011fu kez ba\u015far\u0131 ile – meydan okuma c\u00fcretini g\u00f6sterdi, ve imparator Albert de, \u0130svi\u00e7re\u2019nin \u00f6zg\u00fcr imparatorluk k\u00f6yl\u00fclerini, kendinden ba\u015fka biri olmayan Avusturya grand\u00fck\u00fcne kahpece teslim etmeye kalk\u0131\u015farak, ilk Avrupa \u00e7ap\u0131nda \u00fcnl\u00fc piyadenin kurulu\u015funu sa\u011flad\u0131. \u0130svi\u00e7relilerin, Avusturyal\u0131lar ve Burginyonlara kar\u015f\u0131 kazand\u0131klar\u0131 utkularda, atl\u0131 ya da yaya z\u0131rhl\u0131 \u015f\u00f6valyelik, piyade kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda; feodal ordu, modern ordunun ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7lar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda; \u015f\u00f6valye, burjuva ve \u00f6zg\u00fcr k\u00f6yl\u00fc kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kesinlikle yenik d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Ve Cumhuriyetlerinin burjuva niteli\u011fini daha ilk anda do\u011frulamak i\u00e7in, Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n ilk ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z Cumhuriyeti olan \u0130svi\u00e7reliler, askeri \u00f6v\u00fcn\u00e7lerini hemen ge\u00e7er ak\u00e7e yapt\u0131lar. Her t\u00fcrl\u00fc siyasal titizlik ortadan kalkt\u0131; en \u00e7ok verenler hesab\u0131na paral\u0131 asker toplama amac\u0131yla, kantonlar asker toplama b\u00fcrolar\u0131 durumuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fcler. Ba\u015fka yerlerde ve \u00f6zellikle Almanya\u2019da, asker toplay\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n trampeti kap\u0131 kap\u0131 dola\u015ft\u0131; ama uyruklar\u0131n\u0131 satmak i\u00e7in kurulmu\u015fa benzeyen bir h\u00fck\u00fcmetin kinizmi [4] en derin ulusal d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcnl\u00fck \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda, Alman prensleri taraf\u0131ndan a\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 zamana de\u011fin, e\u015fsiz kald\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Sonra, 14. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, top barutu ve top\u00e7uluk da, Araplar taraf\u0131ndan, \u0130spanya \u00fczerinden Avrupa\u2019ya getirildi. Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n sonuna de\u011fin, ta\u015f\u0131nabilir ate\u015fli silah \u00f6nemsiz kald\u0131; bunda da anla\u015f\u0131lmayacak bir \u015fey yok, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Crecy ok\u00e7usunun oku, Waterloo piyade erinin d\u00fcz namlulu t\u00fcfe\u011fi kadar uza\u011fa gidiyor ve -ayn\u0131 etkiyi yapmasa da- belki daha g\u00fcvenli bir bi\u00e7imde vuruyordu. Sahra topu da hen\u00fcz \u00e7ocukluk \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ndayd\u0131; buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k a\u011f\u0131r toplar, \u015f\u00f6valye \u015fatolar\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f surlar\u0131n\u0131 bir\u00e7ok kez d\u00f6vm\u00fc\u015f ve feodal soylulu\u011fa, barutun, egemenli\u011finin sonunu sa\u011flama ba\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 haber vermi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bas\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131, ilk\u00e7a\u011f yaz\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n irdelenmesinin yeniden ba\u015flamas\u0131 1450\u2019den sonra gitgide g\u00fc\u00e7lenen ve evrenselle\u015fen t\u00fcm k\u00fclt\u00fcr hareketi, feodaliteye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131nda, burjuvazi ve krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n i\u015fini kolayla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. Bu nedenlerin, ayn\u0131 y\u00f6nde gitgide daha ileri giden, birbirleri \u00fczerindeki artan kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkileri ile y\u0131ldan y\u0131la daha da peki\u015fmi\u015f birle\u015fik etkisi, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda, feodaliteye kar\u015f\u0131, burjuvazinin de\u011filse de, en az\u0131ndan krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n utkusunu sa\u011flad\u0131. Avrupa\u2019da her yerde, feodal durumdan ge\u00e7memi\u015f uzak ikincil \u00fclkelere kadar, krall\u0131k iktidar\u0131 birdenbire \u00fcste \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u0130berik yar\u0131madas\u0131nda, Latin dil soylar\u0131ndan ikisi, \u0130spanya krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kurmak \u00fczere birle\u015ftiler ve Provans dilini konu\u015fan Aragon krall\u0131\u011f\u0131, yaz\u0131l\u0131 dil olarak Kastilya dilini kabul etti; \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc soy, Portekiz krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kurmak \u00fczere, Gali\u00e7ya d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, kendi dil alan\u0131n\u0131 birle\u015ftirdi; \u0130berik Hollanda s\u0131, i\u00e7e d\u00f6nd\u00fc ve deniz etkinli\u011fi arac\u0131yla, ayr\u0131 bir varl\u0131k hakk\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131tlad\u0131. Fransa\u2019da, Burginyon devletinin \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden sonra, Louis XI, sonunda ulusal birli\u011fi \u00f6ylesine g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir bi\u00e7imde kurma ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterdi ki, hen\u00fcz \u00e7ok par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015f bir durumda bulunan Frans\u0131z topra\u011f\u0131 \u00fczerinde krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 temsil ediyor, ard\u0131l\u0131 daha o zamandan \u0130talyanlar aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7eki\u015fmelere burnunu sokabiliyor ve bu birlik, Reform taraf\u0131ndan, ancak bir kez ve o da az bir zaman i\u00e7in, tehlikeye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclebiliyordu; \u0130ngiltere, sonunda, uzun erimde kendisini kan i\u00e7inde b\u0131rakacak Fransa\u2019daki Donki\u015fot\u2019\u00e7a fetih sava\u015flar\u0131ndan vazge\u00e7mi\u015fti; feodal soyluluk \u0130ki G\u00fcl sava\u015flar\u0131nda bir \u00f6d\u00fcnleme arad\u0131 ve arad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan \u00e7o\u011funu da buldu; kendi kendini y\u0131pratt\u0131 ve tahta, krall\u0131k iktidar\u0131 t\u00fcm \u00f6ncelleri ve t\u00fcm ard\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n erkli\u011fini a\u015fan Tudorlar hanedan\u0131n\u0131 oturttu. \u0130skandinav \u00fclkeleri, birliklerini uzun s\u00fcreden beri ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131; Litvanya ile birle\u015fmesinden sonra, Polonya, hen\u00fcz hi\u00e7 bir sald\u0131r\u0131ya u\u011framam\u0131\u015f bir krall\u0131k iktidar\u0131 ile y\u00fckseli\u015f d\u00f6nemine do\u011fru gidiyordu ve hatta Rusya\u2019da bile, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck prenslerin y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131 ile Tatar boyunduru\u011fundan kurtulu\u015f el ele y\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f ve \u0130van III taraf\u0131ndan kesin bir sonuca ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. T\u00fcm Avrupa\u2019da, krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve o s\u0131ralarda krall\u0131k olmaks\u0131z\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 olanaks\u0131z ulusal birli\u011fin bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, ya da ancak k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t \u00fczerinde bulundu\u011fu sadece iki \u00fclke vard\u0131: \u0130talya ve Almanya.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[*]<\/strong> Engels, bu par\u00e7ay\u0131 1884 sonlar\u0131nda, K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131<\/em>\u2019n\u0131, eksenini bu yap\u0131t\u0131n olu\u015fturaca\u011f\u0131, genel bir Almanya tarihi i\u00e7ine sokmay\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir d\u00f6nemde yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Makale Anti \u2013 D\u00fchring i\u00e7inde yer al\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [1]<\/strong> Hanse. \u2013 Orta\u00e7a\u011f’da \u00e7o\u011fu Kuzey Almanya\u2019da bulunan baz\u0131 Avrupa kentleri aras\u0131ndaki ticaret ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [2]<\/strong> Spruner-Menke, Handatas zur Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neuen Zeit, 3. bask\u0131, Gotha 1874, harita n\u00b0 32.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [3]<\/strong> Ludwigsied, Louis III\u2019\u00fcn, 881\u2019de, Saucourt\u2019da, Normanlara kar\u015f\u0131 kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 utkuyu ululayan, Frankonca yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir \u015fiirdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [4]<\/strong> Kinizm: (K\u00f6peksile\u015fme, Kelbiye, Cynisme, Cynsmus, Cynicism, Cinismo): Zevksizlik \u00f6\u011fretisi. Hedonizm\u2019in z\u0131dd\u0131.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Egemen feodal soylulu\u011fun yaban\u0131l sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131, orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131, g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcleri ile doldururken, t\u00fcm Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da ezilen s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n sessiz sedas\u0131z \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 feodal sistemi kemirmi\u015fti; bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, i\u00e7inde feodal beylere gitgide daha az yer kalan ko\u015fullar\u0131 yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ger\u00e7i, k\u0131rda, soylu beyler, h\u00e2l\u00e2 ortal\u0131\u011f\u0131 kas\u0131p kavuruyorlard\u0131; toprak k\u00f6lelerinin iflah\u0131n\u0131 kesiyor, \u00e7ektikleri g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc\u011fe g\u00f6zlerini kap\u0131yor, \u00fcr\u00fcnlerini ayaklar\u0131yla \u00e7i\u011fniyor, kar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ve k\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n \u0131rzlar\u0131na […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":2245,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[705],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2244","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-tarih"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2244","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2244"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2244\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2246,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2244\/revisions\/2246"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2245"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2244"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2244"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trockist.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2244"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}